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Anxiety, Substance Abuse, many sleep disorders such as Nightmare Disorder, etc., in addition to PTSD and Depression). Research shows bi-directional causality between neuropsychiatric disorders and sleep disorders. This is a superb example of how fundamental science breakthroughs lead to clinical breakthroughs. This fact that REM is associated with emotional memories is nicely consistent with the apparent psychotic nature of dreams, because in REM Sleep the frontal cortex is ‘down-regulated’ (and the frontal cortex is associated with rational planning, reflection, controlling impulses), while in REM Sleep the limbic system is ‘up-regulated” (and the limbic system is associated with emotions and feelings) – see Neuroimaging below. This is why dream states flood the ego with emotional fantasies without rational control. However, it is also true that the limbic system enables creative ideas, thus grounding in science the long-suspected idea that sleep and dreams can enhance creativity.

As Dr. Robert Stickgold, our other advisor on the series, wrote: “It would be nice if we could talk about sleep and memory as if there were only one type of memory and one type of sleep. But this is far from the case. Sleep and memory each comes in many forms, and furthermore, memories can go through multiple forms of post-encoding processing that must be individually addressed.”

Immunity / Immune System. Strengthening the immune system is now a proven product of NREM sleep. Discerning the evolutionary basis for this is a key research project (i.e., it seems counter-intuitive that sleeping facilitates fitness for survival in that predators lurked in the jungles and on the plains so that going unconscious during sleep does not, at first glance, seem especially adaptive). Studies of sleep in various non-human animals reveals a direct relationship between longer periods of NREM (Slow-Wave) Sleep and a stronger immune system, especially in fighting parasites. NREM Sleep releases molecules that fight inflection; NREM Sleep works for the maintenance, repair and activation of the immune system. (This gives scientific rationale for the need or desire to sleep during illnesses.) Related are “genetic conflict” studies with respect to REM and NREM, showing differences in heredity between material and paternal lines, and differences between males and females in which genes get “imprinted”.

Neuroplasticity. Exciting recent research has reversed the century-long conventional wisdom that new neurons are never created in adult animals/humans. The development of new neurons – neuronogenesis – is a vital part of maintaining normal brain and mental functioning. New neurons are being created, importantly, in the hippocampus (brain organ where new memories are encoded) – but, remarkably, the neuronogenesis in the hippocampus occurs only/largely during REM Sleep – a stunning finding. This is another reason why REM sleep is needed for emotional memory consolidation (normal functioning).

Dream-Content. Although dreams have sparked human fascination and fantasy for thousands of years, only in very recent years, have large-scale surveys been conducted with rigorous design, classifications and statistical analysis. Literally hundreds of thousands of dreams are enabling statistically significant theories, including cross-cultural analyses (similarities and differences). Dream-posting sites have revolutionized size and structure of dream data sets. This enables, for the first time, longitudinal studies of dreams over time. Patterns are repeated. For example, in general, the dreams of males and females differ in fundamental ways. Males will engage in fighting with other males; females with both males and females. Male dreamers are often the initiator of fights and the fights are usually physical. Females fight verbally. Aggressiveness by the dreamer is almost always in REM Sleep, rarely in NREM Sleep. (Why is a continuing question.) “Lucid Dreaming” is a new area of fascinating research. Lucid Dreaming is where the dreamer “knows” that he/she is dreaming while dreaming (a talent that a small minority possesses but more can be trained/developed). Lucid dreamers, while sleeping, can now communicate with experimenters by altering their brain activity and thus becoming detectable by neuroimaging techniques (see below).

Neuroimaging. Finally, neuroimaging technology has enabled many of these breakthroughs. As such, it is itself a methodological breakthrough that has enabled these other content breakthroughs. Neuroimaging now enables detailed location of the neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of REM and NREM Sleep. In REM Sleep, the dorsolateral, frontal cortex is “down-regulated”, whereas the limbic system is “up-regulated”,

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